Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.Deduction is taught through the study of formal logic, or the science of good reasoning.The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of everyday language into verbal equations.Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out if the argument makes sense.
TfY Chapter 12
Exercise p.348- Deductive Reasoning: How Do I Reason from premises?
Definition:Deduction: an amount or percentage deducted; something that is inferred deduced or entailed or implied; reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect); subtraction: the act of subtracting (removing a part from the whole); discount: the act of reducing the selling price of merchandise.
Deductive logic: Deductive reasoning is the kind of reasoning in which the conclusion is necessitated by, or reached from, previously known facts (the premises). If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. This is distinguished from abductive and inductive reasoning, where the premises may predict a high probability of the conclusion, but do not ensure that the conclusion is true.
Reasoning: is the mental (cognitive) process of looking for reasons to support beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings.
Thursday, May 8, 2008
CRCB ch12
Identifying and Evaluating Arguments
Arguments are the logical structures that people use when they write and speak to present ideas and persuade others to support those ideas.An argument consists of two or more statements that include one conclusion and at least one reason that support it. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical. Arguments can be evaluated using specific critical including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.There are two primary types of arguments, deductive and inductive. Deductive arguments are judged as either being true or false. If the premise or premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true. An inductive argument begins with a series of specific observations and concludes with a generalization that logically follows from it. As they are based on limited observations, even well-constructed inductive arguments cannot be considered absolutely true.
Arguments are the logical structures that people use when they write and speak to present ideas and persuade others to support those ideas.An argument consists of two or more statements that include one conclusion and at least one reason that support it. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical. Arguments can be evaluated using specific critical including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.There are two primary types of arguments, deductive and inductive. Deductive arguments are judged as either being true or false. If the premise or premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true. An inductive argument begins with a series of specific observations and concludes with a generalization that logically follows from it. As they are based on limited observations, even well-constructed inductive arguments cannot be considered absolutely true.
TFY ch 11
Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information. When we use inductive reasoning, we observe, test, and check things out in some systematic fashion. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method.Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.The either-or fallacy, or false dilemma, is an argument that oversimplifies a situation, asserting that there are only two choices, when actually other alternatives exist.Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could not be stopped. It ignores the many variables or unknowns in the situation
TfY Chapter 11 Exercise p.303- Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies: How Do I Reason from Evidence?
1. Induction: Is an argument the truth of whose premises would not serve to guarantee the truth of its conclusion, yet would provide some evidence for it. Sometimes said to be "inductively but not deductively valid".
2. Reasoning: Is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises. There are two main methods to reach a conclusion. One is deductive reasoning, in which given true premises, the conclusion must follow (the conclusion cannot be false). This sort of reasoning is non-ampliative - it does not increase one's knowledge base, since the conclusion is self-contained in the premises. A classical example of deductive reasoning are syllogism.
3. Empirical: Refers to that which is based on observation or experience rather than on theory. 4. Scientific methods: Is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
5.Inductive reasoning: A type of type of mathematical reasoning which involves observing patterns and using those observations to make generalizations.
TfY Chapter 11 Exercise p.303- Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies: How Do I Reason from Evidence?
1. Induction: Is an argument the truth of whose premises would not serve to guarantee the truth of its conclusion, yet would provide some evidence for it. Sometimes said to be "inductively but not deductively valid".
2. Reasoning: Is the act of using reason to derive a conclusion from certain premises. There are two main methods to reach a conclusion. One is deductive reasoning, in which given true premises, the conclusion must follow (the conclusion cannot be false). This sort of reasoning is non-ampliative - it does not increase one's knowledge base, since the conclusion is self-contained in the premises. A classical example of deductive reasoning are syllogism.
3. Empirical: Refers to that which is based on observation or experience rather than on theory. 4. Scientific methods: Is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning, the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
5.Inductive reasoning: A type of type of mathematical reasoning which involves observing patterns and using those observations to make generalizations.
CRCB ch 11
Visual aids are a very important part of the textbook reading. They are tools designed to help you learn and remember new concepts and key information.Visual aids provide a quick, easily accessible format for information that shows you how ideas connect or relate to each other. Authors use visuals as learning aids, as a way to illustrate and explain their main idea. Types of visual aids include mind maps, outlines, charts, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, photographs, and time lines.An effective reading and study strategy is to make your own visual aids. Here fore you have to recognize the important elements in what you are reading and be able to prioritize and organize them in a logical and useful format.
TFY ch 10
Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious I an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.Prejudicial language persuade through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phoney or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/ diverts attention into irrelevant issues.The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent’s position; it creates a false replica, and then destroys the replica.Pointing to another wrong are also called two wrongs make a right. It says, “Don’t look at me; he did it too!”Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed.
TfY Chapter 10
Class Discussion p.294- Fallacies: What's a Faulty Argument?
1. (1)TV can't be harmful to children, (2)because it occupies their attention for hours and keep them off the streets. (take from S. Morris Engel's With Good Reason, St. Martin's Press, 1982)
2. (1)Those who are so ferociously involved in Mothers Against Drunk Driving would (2)better spend their time in working with A.A. to help alcoholics.
3.(2)Why are you always nagging at me(1)about the way I drive?
4. (1)Person A:I oppose school voucher programs because they undermine the public school system and give subsidies to rich families who can already afford to send their children to private schools. (2)Person B: I am not going to engage in class warfare. The real issue here is opportunity.
TfY Chapter 10
Class Discussion p.294- Fallacies: What's a Faulty Argument?
1. (1)TV can't be harmful to children, (2)because it occupies their attention for hours and keep them off the streets. (take from S. Morris Engel's With Good Reason, St. Martin's Press, 1982)
2. (1)Those who are so ferociously involved in Mothers Against Drunk Driving would (2)better spend their time in working with A.A. to help alcoholics.
3.(2)Why are you always nagging at me(1)about the way I drive?
4. (1)Person A:I oppose school voucher programs because they undermine the public school system and give subsidies to rich families who can already afford to send their children to private schools. (2)Person B: I am not going to engage in class warfare. The real issue here is opportunity.
CRCB ch 10
Textbook marking is a systematic way of marking, highlighting, and labeling ideas to show how they are related to each other and which are most important. It also helps you to remember what you had read. At the end of the study-reading stage of textbook reading, you should look for and mark these items: main ideas, major supporting details, and new vocabulary. Beyond these three basic elements of textbook marking, you should use your experience in lecture and lab to decide if you need to mark more. Always mark information that is unclear; to remind yourself to find out what it means before you are tested on the material.
TFY ch9
The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.What an argument first needs is an objective reading or hearing. Afterwards criticism can begin with five questions:
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
TfY Chapter 9
Exercise p.259- Argument:
What is Deductive Reasoning? 1. Student who want well-paying careers upon graduation should (R)train themselves to be computer programmers.
(C)Most cities are full of advertisements for computer programmers.
2. By the study of different religions (R)we find that in essence they are one. All are concerned with revelations or breakthrough experiences that can (C)redirect lives and empower them toward good.
3. (R)I am not pro-abortion at all. I think that people nowadays use abortion as an essay from of both control. (C)It's also against my religion.
4. (R)Guns kill people; that's why handguns should be banned.(C)
5. (R)Deep fat frying can greatly increase the calories of foods such as fish, chicken, and potatoes. Therefore, (C)it is better to bake, boil, or steam foods.
6. " It is important that (R)individual citizens equip themselves with a baloney detection kit to determine whether politiciand, scientists, or religious leaders are lying-it's an important part of becoming a citizen of the world."(C)
7. (R)America should put a freeze on immigration. Its first duty is to take better care of its own disadvantaged, poor, and unemployed.(C)
8. (R)America boasts about its wealth and prosperity as the world's most competitive economy. Yet its citizens are told there is not enough money for health care, environmental protection, for parks, safety nets for the poor and elderly, or public funding for the arts(C). Isn't there something wrong with this picture?
9. (R)"If nothing happened, if nothing changed, time would stop. For time is nothing but change. It is change that we perceive occurring all around us, not time. In fact, time doesn't exist."(C) 10. (R)I don't know drink because alcohol gives me a brief high followed by a longer depression.(C)
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
TfY Chapter 9
Exercise p.259- Argument:
What is Deductive Reasoning? 1. Student who want well-paying careers upon graduation should (R)train themselves to be computer programmers.
(C)Most cities are full of advertisements for computer programmers.
2. By the study of different religions (R)we find that in essence they are one. All are concerned with revelations or breakthrough experiences that can (C)redirect lives and empower them toward good.
3. (R)I am not pro-abortion at all. I think that people nowadays use abortion as an essay from of both control. (C)It's also against my religion.
4. (R)Guns kill people; that's why handguns should be banned.(C)
5. (R)Deep fat frying can greatly increase the calories of foods such as fish, chicken, and potatoes. Therefore, (C)it is better to bake, boil, or steam foods.
6. " It is important that (R)individual citizens equip themselves with a baloney detection kit to determine whether politiciand, scientists, or religious leaders are lying-it's an important part of becoming a citizen of the world."(C)
7. (R)America should put a freeze on immigration. Its first duty is to take better care of its own disadvantaged, poor, and unemployed.(C)
8. (R)America boasts about its wealth and prosperity as the world's most competitive economy. Yet its citizens are told there is not enough money for health care, environmental protection, for parks, safety nets for the poor and elderly, or public funding for the arts(C). Isn't there something wrong with this picture?
9. (R)"If nothing happened, if nothing changed, time would stop. For time is nothing but change. It is change that we perceive occurring all around us, not time. In fact, time doesn't exist."(C) 10. (R)I don't know drink because alcohol gives me a brief high followed by a longer depression.(C)
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